<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><rss version="2.0"
	xmlns:content="http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/content/"
	xmlns:wfw="http://wellformedweb.org/CommentAPI/"
	xmlns:dc="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/"
	xmlns:atom="http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom"
	xmlns:sy="http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/syndication/"
	xmlns:slash="http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/slash/"
	xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/"
>

<channel>
	<title>Lan Cuo, Author at Eos</title>
	<atom:link href="https://eos.org/author/lan-cuo/feed" rel="self" type="application/rss+xml" />
	<link>https://eos.org</link>
	<description>Science News by AGU</description>
	<lastBuildDate>Fri, 27 Jun 2025 03:54:27 +0000</lastBuildDate>
	<language>en-US</language>
	<sy:updatePeriod>
	hourly	</sy:updatePeriod>
	<sy:updateFrequency>
	1	</sy:updateFrequency>
	<generator>https://wordpress.org/?v=6.8.1</generator>

<image>
	<url>https://eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/cropped-AGU-Logo_50x50-80x80.png</url>
	<title>Lan Cuo, Author at Eos</title>
	<link>https://eos.org</link>
	<width>32</width>
	<height>32</height>
</image> 
<site xmlns="com-wordpress:feed-additions:1">195464399</site>	<item>
		<title>Preocupaciones sobre el litio, el agua y el clima en los dos desiertos más altos de la Tierra</title>
		<link>https://eos.org/opinions/concerns-over-lithium-water-and-climate-in-earths-two-highest-deserts-spanish</link>
					<comments>https://eos.org/opinions/concerns-over-lithium-water-and-climate-in-earths-two-highest-deserts-spanish#respond</comments>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Lan Cuo]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Tue, 27 May 2025 13:17:40 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Opinions]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Andes]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Atacama Desert]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[China]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[climate]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Climate Change]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[deserts]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Earth science]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Eos en Español]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[freshwater]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[groundwater]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Health & Ecosystems]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[lithium]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[mining]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Natural Resources]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Opinion]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[renewables]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[South America]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Tibetan Plateau]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[water cycle]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Water quality]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://eos.org/?p=236621</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[<figure><img width="1024" height="576" src="https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?fit=1024%2C576&amp;ssl=1" class="attachment-rss-image-size size-rss-image-size wp-post-image" alt="Vista satelital de estanques rectangulares de evaporación usados para extrcción de litio localizados dentro de una sal blanca brillante." decoding="async" fetchpriority="high" srcset="https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?w=1200&amp;ssl=1 1200w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?resize=480%2C270&amp;ssl=1 480w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?resize=1024%2C576&amp;ssl=1 1024w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?resize=768%2C432&amp;ssl=1 768w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?resize=400%2C225&amp;ssl=1 400w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?fit=1024%2C576&amp;ssl=1&amp;w=370 370w" sizes="(max-width: 34.9rem) calc(100vw - 2rem), (max-width: 53rem) calc(8 * (100vw / 12)), (min-width: 53rem) calc(6 * (100vw / 12)), 100vw" /></figure>La extracción de salmuera para satisfacer la demanda de recursos en medio de la transición a energías renovables está afectando los recursos hídricos en Sudamérica y China. Los hidrólogos pueden ayudar a comprender cómo y a sumarse a la búsqueda de soluciones.]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[<figure><img width="1024" height="576" src="https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?fit=1024%2C576&amp;ssl=1" class="attachment-rss-image-size size-rss-image-size wp-post-image" alt="Vista satelital de estanques rectangulares de evaporación usados para extrcción de litio localizados dentro de una sal blanca brillante." decoding="async" srcset="https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?w=1200&amp;ssl=1 1200w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?resize=480%2C270&amp;ssl=1 480w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?resize=1024%2C576&amp;ssl=1 1024w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?resize=768%2C432&amp;ssl=1 768w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?resize=400%2C225&amp;ssl=1 400w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?fit=1024%2C576&amp;ssl=1&amp;w=370 370w" sizes="(max-width: 34.9rem) calc(100vw - 2rem), (max-width: 53rem) calc(8 * (100vw / 12)), (min-width: 53rem) calc(6 * (100vw / 12)), 100vw" /></figure>
<iframe width="100%" height="166" scrolling="no" frameborder="no" allow="autoplay" src="https://w.soundcloud.com/player/?url=https%3A//api.soundcloud.com/tracks/2120397984&#038;color=%23056595&#038;auto_play=false&#038;hide_related=false&#038;show_comments=true&#038;show_user=true&#038;show_reposts=false&#038;show_teaser=true"></iframe>



<p><em>This is an authorized translation of an&nbsp;Eos&nbsp;</em><a href="https://eos.org/opinions/concerns-over-lithium-water-and-climate-in-earths-two-highest-deserts" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>article</em></a><em>. Esta es una traducción al español autorizada de un&nbsp;</em><a href="https://eos.org/opinions/concerns-over-lithium-water-and-climate-in-earths-two-highest-deserts" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>artículo</em></a><em>&nbsp;de&nbsp;Eos.</em></p>



<p>La integración de energía renovable en redes eléctricas a las escalas necesarias para mitigar las crecientes concentraciones de gases de efecto invernadero en la atmósfera y el calentamiento global requiere un almacenamiento confiable, y en grandes cantidades. Esto se debe a la variabilidad del viento y la radiación solar incidente, que suministran la mayor parte de esta energía. Las cada vez más avanzadas <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/in-boost-for-renewables-grid-scale-battery-storage-is-on-the-rise" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">baterías</a> son el medio predilecto para lograr este almacenamiento.</p>



<p>Entra el litio, cuyo peso ligero, alto potencial electroquímico y el alto cociente de carga a peso lo hacen deseable para su uso en baterías para todo, desde aparatos electrónicos hasta vehículos y redes eléctricas. La demanda de este tipo de baterías ha impulsado un <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2023/01/chart-countries-produce-lithium-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crecimiento acelerado</a> de la producción mundial de litio: se estima que en <a href="http://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2024/mcs2024-lithium.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2023 se produjeron</a> 180,000 toneladas, en comparación con unas 35,000 en la <a href="https://d9-wret.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com/assets/palladium/production/mineral-pubs/lithium/mcs-2014-lithi.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">década anterior</a>.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-pullquote alignleft"><blockquote><p>Sin embargo, la comunidad hidrológica ha prestado poca atención a muchas interrogantes científicas relacionadas al agua en la MLL y la CQ.</p></blockquote></figure>



<p>El litio <a href="https://climate.mit.edu/ask-mit/how-lithium-mined">se extrae principalmente</a> de las rocas del mineral espodumena, por ejemplo, en Australia, y de la salmuera de salares en regiones como la “Media Luna de Litio” (MLL) en Sudamérica y la Cuenca de Qaidam (CQ) en China. En estas dos zonas, tanto los residentes locales como la prensa, las agencias gubernamentales y las organizaciones no gubernamentales están prestando cada vez <a href="https://hir.harvard.edu/lithium-triangle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">más atención</a> a los problemas hídricos y ambientales relacionados con la extracción de salmuera, y las tensiones con las empresas mineras son cada vez más públicas.</p>



<p>Sin embargo, la comunidad hidrológica ha prestado poca atención a muchas interrogantes científicas relacionadas al agua en la MLL y la CQ. Estas preguntas involucran la conectividad natural y el transporte de los recursos hídricos regionales, y cómo el clima y las operaciones mineras afectan su cantidad y calidad. Hidrólogos, hidrometeorólogos e hidrogeólogos deberían trabajar para responder a estas preguntas y ofrecer una visión más integral de cómo se puede lograr una extracción de salmuera más sostenible mediante tecnologías y métodos de estudio consolidados, esto consultando con residentes, gobiernos e industrias de extracción de minerales.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Litio de una media luna y un cuenco</strong></h3>



<p>La MLL y la CQ, que respectivamente son la segunda y la primera mesetas más grandes del mundo, son cuencas endorreicas áridas, lo que significa que están hidrológicamente desconectadas del océano. Existen numerosos lagos salados en ambas regiones, con superficies que varían de 1 a 10,000 kilómetros cuadrados en la MLL y de menos de 1 a más de 600 kilómetros cuadrados en la CQ. Los lagos obtienen agua dulce del flujo fluvial proveniente de los glaciares, la nieve y la lluvia en las montañas adyacentes, así como del agua subterránea alimentada por el flujo de ríos y la precipitación. La principal vía de salida del agua de estas cuencas es la evapotranspiración, que con el tiempo concentra las sales minerales en depósitos en el fondo de la cuenca, lo que posibilita la extracción de salmuera.</p>



<p>Las fuentes de litio provenientes de salmueras en la región fronteriza entre Bolivia, Argentina y Chile, en la meseta andina (Figura 1, izquierda), la denominada Media Luna de Litio (un área más pequeña dentro de la MLL se conoce comúnmente como el Triángulo del Litio), representan <a href="http://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2024/mcs2024-lithium.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aproximadamente el 53 %</a> de las reservas mundiales conocidas de litio [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103615" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Steinmetz y Salvi</a>, 2021]. Esta región también produce aproximadamente un tercio de los compuestos de litio a nivel mundial.</p>



<p>China, por su parte, posee alrededor del 6.5 % de las reservas conocidas de litio y contribuyó con cerca del 18 % de la producción mundial de compuestos de litio en 2023. Varias operaciones de extracción de salmuera en China se llevan a cabo en la cuenca del Qaidam, en la provincia de Qinghai, en la meseta tibetana septentrional (Figura 1, derecha). En 2023, el 21.2 % de la producción total de carbonato de litio de China provino de la cuenca del Qaidam [<a href="https://m.yicai.com/news/102000260.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oficina de Estadísticas de Qinghai</a>, 2023].</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img data-recalc-dims="1" decoding="async" width="780" height="347" src="https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin-maps.png?resize=780%2C347&#038;ssl=1" alt="" class="wp-image-236626" srcset="https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin-maps.png?resize=1024%2C456&amp;ssl=1 1024w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin-maps.png?resize=480%2C214&amp;ssl=1 480w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin-maps.png?resize=768%2C342&amp;ssl=1 768w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin-maps.png?resize=1536%2C684&amp;ssl=1 1536w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin-maps.png?resize=1200%2C535&amp;ssl=1 1200w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin-maps.png?resize=1568%2C699&amp;ssl=1 1568w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin-maps.png?resize=400%2C178&amp;ssl=1 400w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin-maps.png?w=2000&amp;ssl=1 2000w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin-maps-1024x456.png?w=370&amp;ssl=1 370w" sizes="(max-width: 780px) 100vw, 780px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Fig. 1. Los contornos rojos indican la ubicación geográfica de la Media Luna de Litio (MLL, izquierda) en la meseta andina de Sudamérica y la Cuenca Qaidam de China (CQ, derecha) en la meseta tibetana septentrional. La MLL tiene elevaciones de 2200 a 6800 metros y una superficie de 327 000 kilómetros cuadrados; la CQ tiene elevaciones de 2600 a 6800 metros y una superficie de 279 000 kilómetros cuadrados. Los contornos de ambas cuencas provienen de <a href="https://www.hydrosheds.org/products/hydrobasins" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HydroBASINS</a>. Haga clic en la imagen para ampliarla. Crédito: datos cartográficos de Google Earth, SIO, NOAA, Marina de los EE. UU., NGA, GEBCO, Landsat, Copernicus, IBCAO</figcaption></figure>



<p>La CQ produce no solo compuestos de litio, sino también potasa, combustibles fósiles, cloruro de sodio y otros recursos que contribuyen significativamente a la industria y la agricultura de China. Por ejemplo, la potasa producida en la QB en 2023 representó el 69.4 % de la producción total de este recurso en China y el 6.5 % de la producción mundial (cifras calculadas con base en datos de <a href="https://m.yicai.com/news/102000260.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">la Oficina de Estadística de Qinghai</a> [2023] y del <a href="http://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2024/mcs2024-potash.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Servicio Geológico de Estados Unidos</a>).</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Aumento de demanda en medio de condiciones cambiantes</strong></h3>



<p>Las regiones de la MLL y la CQ reciben cantidades similares de precipitación, con promedios anuales totales de aproximadamente 170 a 180 milímetros, que caen principalmente en sus respectivos veranos. Sin embargo, mientras que la precipitación disminuye ligeramente en MLL, esta aumenta gradualmente en CQ (Figura 2). La MLL también es más cálida y húmeda en promedio y presenta una evapotranspiración potencial mucho mayor que CQ; sin embargo, las temperaturas en ambas regiones están aumentando.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-pullquote alignright"><blockquote><p>Se predice que el almacenamiento de agua disminuirá debido a que el calentamiento podría reducir los glaciares y la nieve en ambas regiones, y estos cambios podrían aumentar la variabilidad de los caudales fluviales y alterar los regímenes de caudal.</p></blockquote></figure>



<p>Se proyecta que estas tendencias continuarán en las próximas décadas, y los cambios climáticos tendrán consecuencias para los recursos hídricos. Se predice que el almacenamiento de agua disminuirá debido a que el calentamiento <a href="https://eos.org/features/adapting-to-receding-glaciers-in-the-tropical-andes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">podría reducir los glaciares y la nieve</a> en ambas regiones, y estos cambios podrían aumentar la variabilidad de los caudales fluviales y alterar los regímenes de caudal. Junto con el calentamiento, la reducción en precipitación exacerbará las condiciones de sequía en la MLL. En la CQ, el aumento de la precipitación y el derretimiento de los glaciares y la nieve probablemente causarán más <a href="https://eos.org/features/when-environmental-forces-collide" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eventos extremos compuestos</a> similares a las inundaciones catastróficas que ocurrieron en la región en 2010 [Ma y Xu, 2011] y <a href="https://www.chinanews.com.cn/sh/2022/08-10/9823783.shtml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2022</a>. Estas inundaciones dañaron campos de salmuera, presas e infraestructura y causaron pérdidas económicas superiores a los 10 millones de dólares.</p>



<p>Mientras tanto, la industria de la extracción de salmuera ha experimentado un auge en las últimas décadas en ambas regiones. Se prevé que la explotación de recursos, especialmente de litio, se intensifique en el futuro próximo, siguiendo la tendencia reciente.</p>



<p>Para extraer los materiales deseados, los mineros perforan pozos en los salares y bombean salmuera rica en minerales a la superficie. La salmuera se deja evaporar durante unos 12 a 18 meses, durante los cuales se evapora aproximadamente el 90 % del agua original. El material restante se recolecta y procesa para obtener productos minerales comercializables. Este proceso de bombeo de salmuera y aumento de la evaporación en la superficie altera los ciclos hidrológicos locales naturales. Además, se necesita agua dulce durante toda la etapa de procesamiento para purificar los compuestos químicos.</p>


<div class="wp-block-image">
<figure class="alignleft size-large"><img data-recalc-dims="1" decoding="async" width="780" height="892" src="https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-climate-data-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin.png?resize=780%2C892&#038;ssl=1" alt="Una serie de gráficos de datos muestran la precipitación anual y mensual, evapotranspiración potencial, presión de vapor, y temperatura del aire en la Luca creciente de Litio y la Cuenca de Qaidam de 1960 a 2022." class="wp-image-236627" srcset="https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-climate-data-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin.png?resize=895%2C1024&amp;ssl=1 895w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-climate-data-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin.png?resize=420%2C480&amp;ssl=1 420w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-climate-data-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin.png?resize=768%2C879&amp;ssl=1 768w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-climate-data-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin.png?resize=1343%2C1536&amp;ssl=1 1343w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-climate-data-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin.png?resize=1790%2C2048&amp;ssl=1 1790w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-climate-data-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin.png?resize=1200%2C1373&amp;ssl=1 1200w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-climate-data-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin.png?resize=1568%2C1794&amp;ssl=1 1568w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-climate-data-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin.png?resize=400%2C458&amp;ssl=1 400w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-climate-data-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin.png?w=2000&amp;ssl=1 2000w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-climate-data-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin-895x1024.png?w=370&amp;ssl=1 370w" sizes="(max-width: 780px) 100vw, 780px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Fig. 2. Las gráficas muestran la precipitación anual y la precipitación promedio mensual (Pre), la evapotranspiración potencial (PET), la presión de vapor (VAP) y la temperatura del aire (T) en la MLL y la CQ de 1960 a 2022. Las estrellas indican la significancia de las tendencias con un valor de p &lt; 0.05. Los datos provienen de la <a href="https://crudata.uea.ac.uk/cru/data/hrg/cru_ts_4.07/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Unidad de Investigación Climática TS, versión 4.07</a>. Haga clic en la imagen para verla más grande.</figcaption></figure></div>


<p>En los últimos años, se han reportado casos que vinculan la extracción de salmuera con la generación de residuos, la contaminación del agua y el suelo, la alteración del paisaje y la degradación de la flora y la fauna, así como con importantes problemas relacionados con la cantidad y la calidad del agua. También se han reportado conflictos y tensiones entre la población local y las empresas mineras en la <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/lithium-batteries-environment-impact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meseta tibetana</a> y la <a href="https://www.nrdc.org/stories/lithium-mining-leaving-chiles-indigenous-communities-high-and-dry-literally" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MLL</a>, relacionados con la reducción de los recursos hídricos y la contaminación de las aguas subterráneas y los caudales fluviales [<em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11273-022-09872-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marconi et al</a>.</em>, 2022; <a href="https://doi.org/10.13125/americacritica/4926" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Giglio</em></a>, 2021].</p>



<p>Los estudios también documentan los efectos en los ecosistemas. Por ejemplo, la reducción de algunas poblaciones de flamencos andinos se correlaciona con un nivel freático más bajo [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2021.2388" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Gutiérrez et al.</em></a>, 2022], y las poblaciones de cianobacterias que alimentan a los <a href="https://www.sciencenews.org/article/lithium-mining-flamingo-technology-climate-change" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flamencos andinos</a> están disminuyendo en lagunas cercanas al Salar de Atacama en Chile debido al consumo de agua y la contaminación causada por la extracción de litio [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-018-05233-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Gutiérrez et al</em>.</a>, 2018].</p>



<p>La cantidad de agua utilizada en las operaciones de extracción de salmuera puede variar según el clima, las concentraciones minerales y la tecnología empleada, pero para la MLL, los investigadores han estimado que se necesitan entre 100,000 y 800,000 litros de agua por tonelada métrica de litio extraído [<em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-022-00387-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vera et al.</a></em>, 2023]. No existe una estimación similar para la CQ, pero la próspera industria minera en la zona también está aumentando la demanda de agua.</p>



<p>En el sur de la QC, el uso industrial de agua aumentó de 90 millones de metros cúbicos en 2000 a 383 millones de metros cúbicos en 2019, lo que representa el 10.2% y el 40.8%, respectivamente, del consumo total de agua en la región en esos años [Han et al., 2023]. En 2016, se construyeron instalaciones de desviación de agua y canales para transportar agua desde subcuencas cercanas a campos de salmuera y ciudades para satisfacer la creciente demanda. En diciembre de 2023, tres fábricas importantes de extracción de salmuera en la CQ incumplieron sus cuotas de uso de agua al bombear ilegalmente agua subterránea y extraer agua de humedales y lagos protegidos para satisfacer sus demandas de producción. Estas acciones fueron criticadas públicamente por el Ministerio de Ecología y Medio Ambiente de China, que ordenó a las fábricas que dejaran de bombear agua ilegalmente.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Esclareciendo la hidrología en torno a la minería de salmuera</strong></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-pullquote alignright"><blockquote><p>Tenemos un conocimiento limitado del papel de los salares en estos ciclos o de cómo la expansión de las operaciones de extracción de salmuera para satisfacer la demanda de litio podría alterar este papel.</p></blockquote></figure>



<p>Al igual que el océano y otras reservas de agua debajo, sobre y por encima de la superficie terrestre, los salares del mundo tienen un rol en sus ciclos hidrológicos regionales. Sin embargo, tenemos un conocimiento limitado del papel de los salares en estos ciclos o de cómo la expansión de las operaciones de extracción de salmuera para satisfacer la demanda de litio podría alterar este papel.</p>



<p>Los hidrólogos enfrentan varias preguntas generales: ¿Cómo y en qué medida afecta la extracción de salmuera a los diversos reservorios y flujos (p. ej., recarga de aguas subterráneas, desvío de caudales, evaporación) del ciclo hidrológico regional? ¿Cómo llega la escorrentía superficial de las montañas circundantes a los depósitos de agua subterránea? ¿Cómo se conectan estos depósitos bajo las cuencas desérticas donde se forman los lagos de salmuera? ¿Cuáles son las edades y la composición química de estas aguas subterráneas? Abordar estas preguntas permitirá conocer mejor la cantidad y la calidad de los recursos hídricos disponibles, lo que a su vez ayudará a los responsables de la toma de decisiones a asignar el agua de forma justa a los diferentes sectores y a monitorear y proteger la calidad del agua durante la extracción de salmuera.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img data-recalc-dims="1" decoding="async" width="780" height="430" src="https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-evaporation-pond-brine-Qaidam-Basin.jpg?resize=780%2C430&#038;ssl=1" alt="Un largo estanque de evaporación de salmuera se extiende en un paisaje vacío y de aspecto árido bajo un cielo azul despejado." class="wp-image-236629" srcset="https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-evaporation-pond-brine-Qaidam-Basin.jpg?resize=1024%2C565&amp;ssl=1 1024w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-evaporation-pond-brine-Qaidam-Basin.jpg?resize=480%2C265&amp;ssl=1 480w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-evaporation-pond-brine-Qaidam-Basin.jpg?resize=768%2C424&amp;ssl=1 768w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-evaporation-pond-brine-Qaidam-Basin.jpg?resize=1536%2C848&amp;ssl=1 1536w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-evaporation-pond-brine-Qaidam-Basin.jpg?resize=1200%2C662&amp;ssl=1 1200w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-evaporation-pond-brine-Qaidam-Basin.jpg?resize=1568%2C865&amp;ssl=1 1568w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-evaporation-pond-brine-Qaidam-Basin.jpg?resize=400%2C221&amp;ssl=1 400w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-evaporation-pond-brine-Qaidam-Basin.jpg?w=1689&amp;ssl=1 1689w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-evaporation-pond-brine-Qaidam-Basin-1024x565.jpg?w=370&amp;ssl=1 370w" sizes="(max-width: 780px) 100vw, 780px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Estanques de evaporación en el lecho seco del lago West Taijinai’er en la CQ observados en septiembre de 2023. Crédito: Lan Cuo</figcaption></figure>



<p>Además, debido a que la MLL y la CQ están experimentando un calentamiento similar pero diferentes tendencias de precipitación, y sus respectivos ciclos hídricos regionales pueden, por lo tanto, verse afectados de manera diferente por el cambio climático, los hidrólogos deben explorar preguntas relacionadas con estas diferencias. ¿Cómo responden los glaciares y la nieve en estas regiones al calentamiento emparejado con más (o menos) precipitación? ¿Y cómo responden los regímenes de caudal (que comprenden las magnitudes, los tiempos, las frecuencias y las duraciones de los caudales altos y bajos) a los cambios en los glaciares, la nieve y la precipitación? ¿Qué mecanismos controlan los eventos extremos como sequías e inundaciones en estas regiones? Responder a estas preguntas esclarecerá cómo el cambio climático está afectando los escasos recursos hídricos en la MLL y la CQ y puede informar los esfuerzos de mitigación para conservar estos recursos.</p>



<p>Investigar todas estas interrogantes requiere diversos enfoques. Se necesitan mediciones in situ de precipitación, evaporación, glaciares y nieve, así como de aguas subterráneas, lagos, ríos y suelos, para determinar la disponibilidad y calidad de los recursos hídricos en ubicaciones específicas de la MLL y la CQ. Los análisis con isótopos estables y trazadores pueden ayudar a determinar las fuentes y la edad del agua sobre y bajo la superficie terrestre. Las observaciones satelitales de cómo cambian las variables del paisaje, como la desertificación, la superficie lacustre, los glaciares y la nieve, la humedad del suelo y la vegetación, ayudarán a rastrear los efectos del cambio climático y la extracción de salmuera en los recursos hídricos y los ecosistemas. También necesitaremos estudios de modelización hidrogeológica para comprender la hidrología superficial, el almacenamiento y el movimiento de las aguas subterráneas, y cómo se ven afectados por la escorrentía superficial en la MLL y la CQ (se requieren mediciones in situ para validar los estudios satelitales y de modelización).</p>



<p>Además, se debe fomentar la colaboración entre investigadores de ambas regiones para permitir comparaciones detalladas y esclarecer las diferencias y los puntos en común en los problemas hídricos de cada una. Estas colaboraciones también facilitarían el intercambio de mejores prácticas de investigación y posibles soluciones políticas con respecto a la extracción de salmuera y los recursos hídricos.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Involucrar a todas las partes interesadas para obtener mejores resultados</strong></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-pullquote alignright"><blockquote><p>La extracción de salmuera será sostenible sólo cuando las operaciones, desde su inicio hasta su fin, utilicen el agua de manera eficiente, minimicen el daño al medio ambiente, los ecosistemas y las comunidades, y compensen los daños.</p></blockquote></figure>



<p>Los recursos hídricos en la MLL y la CQ ya se encuentran bajo tensión debido a su ubicación en medio de los desiertos más altos del mundo y a las cambiantes condiciones climáticas. La extracción de salmuera para abastecer de litio y otras materias primas a la transición a energías renovables podría agravar esta tensión. Esta extracción sólo será sostenible cuando las operaciones, desde su inicio hasta su fin, utilicen el agua de manera eficiente; minimicen los daños al medio ambiente, los ecosistemas y las comunidades; y compensen los daños cuando estos ocurran.</p>



<p>La combinación de múltiples enfoques científicos para estudiar la hidrología regional generará un conocimiento holístico e integral de la cantidad y la calidad del agua en estas áreas. Sin embargo, para apoyar la sostenibilidad de la extracción de salmuera y la gestión de los recursos hídricos en la MLL y la CQ, los científicos deben compartir la información y las respuestas obtenidas de estos enfoques con las agencias gubernamentales pertinentes, las empresas mineras y las comunidades locales a través de informes de investigación, conferencias y asambleas públicas que reúnan a estos grupos.</p>



<p>La participación de los miembros de la comunidad contribuirá especialmente a revelar no solo los efectos en la hidrología y los ecosistemas, sino también el costo humano de las actividades mineras y el cambio climático. Y una mejor comunicación entre estos grupos ayudará a los legisladores y reguladores a crear y hacer cumplir normas para regir las operaciones mineras responsables, al tiempo que mitigan los impactos negativos y satisfacen las necesidades de la comunidad.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Referencias</strong></h3>



<p class="has-small-font-size">Giglio, E. (2021), Extractivism and its socio-environmental impact in South America: Overview of the “lithium triangle,”&nbsp;<em>Am. Crítica</em>,&nbsp;<em>5</em>(1), 47–53,&nbsp;<a href="https://doi.org/10.13125/americacritica/4926" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://doi.org/10.13125/americacritica/4926</a>.</p>



<p class="has-small-font-size">Gutiérrez, J. S., J. G. Navedo, and A. Soriano-Redondo (2018), Chilean Atacama site imperilled by lithium mining,&nbsp;<em>Nature</em>,&nbsp;<em>557</em>, 492,&nbsp;<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-018-05233-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-018-05233-7</a>.</p>



<p class="has-small-font-size">Gutiérrez, J. S., et al. (2022), Climate change and lithium mining influence flamingo abundance in the Lithium Triangle,&nbsp;<em>Proc. R. Soc. B</em>,&nbsp;<em>289</em>, 20212388,&nbsp;<a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2021.2388" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2021.2388</a>.</p>



<p class="has-small-font-size">Han, J., et al. (2023), The potential analysis of rain-flood resources in the Golmud river catchment based on climate change and human interventions, Qaidam basin [in Chinese],&nbsp;<em>J. Salt Lake Res.</em>,&nbsp;<em>31</em>(4), 30–38.</p>



<p class="has-small-font-size">Ma, S., and L. Xu (2011), 2010 Golmud River flooding analysis,&nbsp;<em>Qinghai Sci. Technol.</em>,&nbsp;<em>1</em>, 38–41.</p>



<p class="has-small-font-size">Marconi, P., F. Arengo, and A. Clark (2022), The arid Andean plateau waterscapes and the lithium triangle: Flamingos as flagships for conservation of high-altitude wetlands under pressure from mining development,&nbsp;<em>Wetlands Ecol. Manage.</em>,&nbsp;<em>30</em>, 827–852,&nbsp;<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11273-022-09872-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://doi.org/10.1007/s11273-022-09872-6</a>.</p>



<p class="has-small-font-size">Qinghai Bureau of Statistics (2023), Statistics of national economy and social development in 2023 [in Chinese],&nbsp;<a href="https://m.yicai.com/news/102000260.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">m.yicai.com/news/102000260.html</a>.</p>



<p class="has-small-font-size">Steinmetz, R. L. L., and S. Salvi (2021), Brine grades in Andean salars: When basin size matters—A review of the Lithium Triangle,&nbsp;<em>Earth Sci. Rev.</em>,&nbsp;<em>217</em>, 103615,&nbsp;<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103615" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103615</a>.</p>



<p class="has-small-font-size">Vera, M. L., et al. (2023), Environmental impact of direct lithium extraction from brines,&nbsp;<em>Nat. Rev. Earth Environ.</em>,&nbsp;<em>4</em>, 149–165,&nbsp;<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-022-00387-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-022-00387-5</a>.</p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Datos de autora</strong></h4>



<p>Lan Cuo (<a href="mailto:lancuo@itpcas.ac.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lancuo@itpcas.ac.cn</a>), State Key Laboratory of Tibetan Plateau Earth System, Resources and Environment, Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Pekín; también en la University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Pekín</p>



<p><em>This translation by Nelmary Rodriguez Sepulveda was made possible by a partnership with&nbsp;</em><a href="https://planeteando.org/blog/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Planeteando</em></a><em> y </em><a href="https://geolatinas.org/es/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>GeoLatinas.</em></a><em> Esta traducción fue posible gracias a una asociación con&nbsp;</em><a href="https://planeteando.org/blog/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Planeteando</em></a><em> and </em><a href="https://geolatinas.org/es/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>GeoLatinas</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<h5 class="has-light-gray-background-color has-background wp-block-heading">This article does not represent the opinion of AGU, <em>Eos,</em> or any of its affiliates. It is solely the opinion of the author(s).</h5>



<h6 class="wp-block-heading">Text © 2025. The authors. <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CC BY-NC-ND 3.0</a><br>Except where otherwise noted, images are subject to copyright. Any reuse without express permission from the copyright owner is prohibited.</h6>
]]></content:encoded>
					
					<wfw:commentRss>https://eos.org/opinions/concerns-over-lithium-water-and-climate-in-earths-two-highest-deserts-spanish/feed</wfw:commentRss>
			<slash:comments>0</slash:comments>
		
		
						<media:description>En esta imagen tomada por el satélite Copernicus Sentinel-2B en mayo de 2017 se ven estanques de evaporación utilizados para la extracción de litio en parte del Salar de Uyuni de Bolivia (el salar más grande del mundo y parte de la &quot;Media Luna de Litio&quot; de Sudamérica). Crédito: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2017/07/Uyuni_salt_flat_Bolivia&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot; rel=&quot;noopener&quot;&gt; contiene datos modificados de Copernicus Sentinel (2017), procesados por la ESA&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/igo/legalcode.en&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot; rel=&quot;noopener&quot;&gt;CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO&lt;/a&gt;</media:description>
				<media:thumbnail url="https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?fit=780%2C439&amp;ssl=1" width="780" height="439" />
				<media:content url="https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/esp-bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?fit=780%2C439&amp;ssl=1" type="image/jpg" medium="image" width="150px" height="auto" />
				<post-id xmlns="com-wordpress:feed-additions:1">236621</post-id>	</item>
		<item>
		<title>Concerns over Lithium, Water, and Climate in Earth’s Two Highest Deserts</title>
		<link>https://eos.org/opinions/concerns-over-lithium-water-and-climate-in-earths-two-highest-deserts</link>
					<comments>https://eos.org/opinions/concerns-over-lithium-water-and-climate-in-earths-two-highest-deserts#respond</comments>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Lan Cuo]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Tue, 27 Aug 2024 12:29:06 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Opinions]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Andes]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Atacama Desert]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[China]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[climate]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Climate Change]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[deserts]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Earth science]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[freshwater]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[groundwater]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Health & Ecosystems]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[lithium]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[mining]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Natural Resources]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Opinion]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[renewables]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[South America]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Tibetan Plateau]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[water cycle]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Water quality]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://eos.org/?p=226245</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[<figure><img width="1024" height="576" src="https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?fit=1024%2C576&amp;ssl=1" class="attachment-rss-image-size size-rss-image-size wp-post-image" alt="Satellite view of rectangular evaporation ponds used for lithium mining located amid a bright white salt flat." decoding="async" srcset="https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?w=1200&amp;ssl=1 1200w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?resize=480%2C270&amp;ssl=1 480w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?resize=1024%2C576&amp;ssl=1 1024w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?resize=768%2C432&amp;ssl=1 768w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?resize=400%2C225&amp;ssl=1 400w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?fit=1024%2C576&amp;ssl=1&amp;w=370 370w" sizes="(max-width: 34.9rem) calc(100vw - 2rem), (max-width: 53rem) calc(8 * (100vw / 12)), (min-width: 53rem) calc(6 * (100vw / 12)), 100vw" /></figure>Brine mining to meet resource demands amid renewable energy transitions is affecting water resources in South America and China. Hydrologists can help understand how and join the search for solutions.]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[<figure><img width="1024" height="576" src="https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?fit=1024%2C576&amp;ssl=1" class="attachment-rss-image-size size-rss-image-size wp-post-image" alt="Satellite view of rectangular evaporation ponds used for lithium mining located amid a bright white salt flat." decoding="async" srcset="https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?w=1200&amp;ssl=1 1200w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?resize=480%2C270&amp;ssl=1 480w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?resize=1024%2C576&amp;ssl=1 1024w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?resize=768%2C432&amp;ssl=1 768w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?resize=400%2C225&amp;ssl=1 400w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?fit=1024%2C576&amp;ssl=1&amp;w=370 370w" sizes="(max-width: 34.9rem) calc(100vw - 2rem), (max-width: 53rem) calc(8 * (100vw / 12)), (min-width: 53rem) calc(6 * (100vw / 12)), 100vw" /></figure>
<p><em>A <a href="https://eos.org/opinions/concerns-over-lithium-water-and-climate-in-earths-two-highest-deserts-spanish" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">translation</a> of this article was made possible by a partnership with </em><a href="https://planeteando.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Planeteando</em></a><em>. Una <a href="https://eos.org/opinions/concerns-over-lithium-water-and-climate-in-earths-two-highest-deserts-spanish" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traducción</a> de este artículo fue posible gracias a una asociación con </em><a href="https://planeteando.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Planeteando</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<div class="wp-block-group alignright has-background" style="background-color:#e2f1ff"><div class="wp-block-group__inner-container is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow">
<h4 class="wp-block-heading has-dark-gray-color has-text-color has-link-color wp-elements-506610d8fd3d55ab7ac21a90bcf70b80"><a href="https://eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Mar25.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Reflections from the Roof of the World</a></h4>


<div class="wp-block-image">
<figure class="alignright size-large is-resized"><a href="https://eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Mar25.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img data-recalc-dims="1" decoding="async" width="780" height="1012" src="https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/EOS_MAR_25_COVER.jpg?resize=780%2C1012&#038;ssl=1" alt="Cover of the March 2025 issue of Eos" class="wp-image-232708" style="width:154px;height:200px" srcset="https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/EOS_MAR_25_COVER-scaled.jpg?resize=789%2C1024&amp;ssl=1 789w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/EOS_MAR_25_COVER-scaled.jpg?resize=370%2C480&amp;ssl=1 370w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/EOS_MAR_25_COVER-scaled.jpg?resize=768%2C997&amp;ssl=1 768w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/EOS_MAR_25_COVER-scaled.jpg?resize=1183%2C1536&amp;ssl=1 1183w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/EOS_MAR_25_COVER-scaled.jpg?resize=1577%2C2048&amp;ssl=1 1577w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/EOS_MAR_25_COVER-scaled.jpg?resize=1200%2C1558&amp;ssl=1 1200w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/EOS_MAR_25_COVER-scaled.jpg?resize=1568%2C2036&amp;ssl=1 1568w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/EOS_MAR_25_COVER-scaled.jpg?resize=2000%2C2597&amp;ssl=1 2000w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/EOS_MAR_25_COVER-scaled.jpg?resize=400%2C519&amp;ssl=1 400w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/EOS_MAR_25_COVER-scaled.jpg?w=1972&amp;ssl=1 1972w" sizes="(max-width: 780px) 100vw, 780px" /></a></figure></div>

</div></div>



<p>Integrating renewable energy into power grids at scales needed to mitigate rising atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations and global warming requires reliable storage—and lots of it. This requirement results from variabilities in the wind and incoming solar radiation that supply most of this energy. <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/in-boost-for-renewables-grid-scale-battery-storage-is-on-the-rise" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Increasingly advanced batteries</a> are the favored means for supplying this storage.</p>



<p>Enter lithium, whose light weight, high electrochemical potential, and high charge-to-weight ratio make it desirable for use in batteries for everything from electronic gadgets to vehicles to power grids. Demand for such batteries has driven <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2023/01/chart-countries-produce-lithium-world/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">rapid growth</a> in the global production of lithium: An estimated 180,000 tons was <a href="http://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2024/mcs2024-lithium.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">produced in 2023</a>, compared with about 35,000 <a href="https://d9-wret.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com/assets/palladium/production/mineral-pubs/lithium/mcs-2014-lithi.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">a decade earlier</a>.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-pullquote alignleft"><blockquote><p>The hydrological community is paying limited attention to many water-related scientific questions in the Lithium Crescent and the Qaidam Basin.</p></blockquote></figure>



<p>Lithium is <a href="https://climate.mit.edu/ask-mit/how-lithium-mined" target="_blank" rel="noopener">primarily mined</a> from the hard rock mineral spodumene—in Australia, for example—and from brine from dried salt lakes in regions such as South America’s “Lithium Crescent” (LC) and China’s Qaidam Basin (QB). In those two areas, local residents as well as the press, governmental agencies, and nongovernmental organizations are devoting <a href="https://hir.harvard.edu/lithium-triangle/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">growing attention</a> to water and environmental problems related to brine mining, and tensions with mining companies are becoming more public.</p>



<p>However, the hydrological community is paying limited attention to many water-related scientific questions in the LC and the QB. These questions involve the natural connectivity and transport of regional water resources and how climate and mining operations are affecting their quantity and quality. Hydrologists, hydrometeorologists, and hydrogeologists, using established technologies and surveying methods and working in consultation with residents, governments, and mineral extraction industries, should work to answer these questions and provide a more holistic picture of how brine mining can be made more sustainable.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Lithium from a Crescent and a Bowl</h3>



<p>The LC and the QB—located amid the world’s second-largest and largest plateaus, respectively—are arid endorheic basins, meaning they are hydrologically disconnected from the ocean. Numerous salt lakes exist in both regions, with surface areas ranging from 1 to 10,000 square kilometers in the LC and from less than 1 to more than 600 square kilometers in the QB. The lakes get freshwater from streamflow originating from glaciers, snow, and rainfall in adjacent mountains and from groundwater fed by streamflow and precipitation. The main way for water to leave these basins is by evapotranspiration, which over time concentrates mineral salts in deposits in the basin floor, making brine mining possible.</p>



<p>Brine-based lithium sources in the border region of Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile in the Andes Plateau (Figure 1, left)—the so-called Lithium Crescent (a smaller area within the LC is commonly known as the Lithium Triangle)—account for <a href="http://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2024/mcs2024-lithium.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">about 53%</a> of the world’s known lithium reserves [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103615" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><em>Steinmetz and Salvi</em></a>, 2021]. This region also produces about a third of the world’s lithium compounds.</p>



<p>China, meanwhile, holds about 6.5% of known lithium reserves and contributed about 18% of the global production of lithium compounds in 2023. Several brine-mining operations in China are performed in the country’s “Treasure Bowl”—the Qaidam Basin of Qinghai Province in the northern Tibetan Plateau (Figure 1, right). In 2023, 21.2% of China’s total lithium carbonate production was from the QB <a href="https://m.yicai.com/news/102000260.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">[<em>Qinghai Bureau of Statistics</em></a>, 2023].</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><a href="https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin-maps.png?ssl=1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img data-recalc-dims="1" decoding="async" width="780" height="347" src="https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin-maps.png?resize=780%2C347&#038;ssl=1" alt="Two physical maps indicate the locations of the Lithium Crescent amid South America’s Andean Plateau and China’s Qaidam Basin in the northern Tibetan Plateau. Inset maps within each broader map show these locations in more detail." class="wp-image-226252" srcset="https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin-maps.png?resize=1024%2C456&amp;ssl=1 1024w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin-maps.png?resize=480%2C214&amp;ssl=1 480w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin-maps.png?resize=768%2C342&amp;ssl=1 768w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin-maps.png?resize=1536%2C684&amp;ssl=1 1536w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin-maps.png?resize=1200%2C535&amp;ssl=1 1200w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin-maps.png?resize=1568%2C699&amp;ssl=1 1568w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin-maps.png?resize=400%2C178&amp;ssl=1 400w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin-maps.png?w=2000&amp;ssl=1 2000w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin-maps-1024x456.png?w=370&amp;ssl=1 370w" sizes="(max-width: 780px) 100vw, 780px" /></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Fig. 1. Red outlines denote the geographic locations of the Lithium Crescent (LC, left) amid South America’s Andean Plateau and China’s Qaidam Basin (QB, right) in the northern Tibetan Plateau. The LC has elevations of 2,200–6,800 meters and an area of 327,000 square kilometers; the QB has elevations of 2,600–6,800 meters and an area of 279,000 square kilometers. The outlines for both basins are from <a href="https://www.hydrosheds.org/products/hydrobasins" target="_blank" rel="noopener">HydroBASINS</a>. Click image for larger version. Credit: map data from Google Earth, SIO, NOAA, U.S. Navy, NGA, GEBCO, Landsat, Copernicus, IBCAO</figcaption></figure>



<p>The QB produces not only lithium compounds but also potash, fossil fuel, sodium chloride, and other resources that contribute greatly to China’s industry and agriculture. Potash produced in the QB in 2023, for example, accounted for 69.4% of China’s total production of the resource and 6.5% of the world’s potash production (figures calculated on the basis of data from the <a href="https://m.yicai.com/news/102000260.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><em>Qinghai Bureau of Statistics</em></a> [2023] and from <a href="http://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2024/mcs2024-potash.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">the U.S. Geological Survey</a>).</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">More Demand amid Changing Conditions</h3>



<p>The LC and QB regions receive similar amounts of precipitation—with average annual totals of about 170–180 millimeters—which falls primarily in their respective summers, but whereas precipitation is decreasing slightly in the LC, it is gradually increasing in the QB (Figure 2). The LC is also warmer and more humid on average and exhibits much higher potential evapotranspiration than the QB, yet temperatures in both are increasing.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-pullquote alignright"><blockquote><p>Water storage is predicted to diminish because warming may reduce glaciers and snow in both regions, and these changes could enhance streamflow variability.</p></blockquote></figure>



<p>These climate trends are projected to continue in the coming decades, and the climate changes will have consequences for water resources. Water storage is predicted to diminish because warming <a href="https://eos.org/features/adapting-to-receding-glaciers-in-the-tropical-andes" target="_blank" rel="noopener">may reduce glaciers and snow</a> in both regions, and these changes could enhance streamflow variability and alter streamflow regimes. Together with the warming, decreasing precipitation will exacerbate drought conditions in the LC. In the QB, increasing precipitation and melting of glaciers and snow will likely cause more <a href="https://eos.org/features/when-environmental-forces-collide" target="_blank" rel="noopener">compound extreme events</a> similar to catastrophic floods that occurred in the region in 2010 [<em>Ma and Xu</em>, 2011] and <a href="https://www.chinanews.com.cn/sh/2022/08-10/9823783.shtml" target="_blank" rel="noopener">2022</a>. These floods damaged brine fields, dams, and infrastructure and caused more than $10 million in economic losses.</p>



<p>Meanwhile, the brine-mining industry has been booming in recent decades in both regions. And exploitation of resources, especially lithium, is expected to intensify in the near future, following the recent trend.</p>



<p>To extract the desired materials, miners drill holes in salt flats and pump mineral-rich brine to the surface. The brine is left to evaporate for about 12–18 months, during which about 90% of the original water evaporates. Remaining material is then collected and processed into sellable mineral products. This process of pumping brine and enhancing evaporation at the surface disrupts natural local hydrological cycles. Furthermore, freshwater is needed throughout the processing stage to help purify chemical compounds.</p>


<div class="wp-block-image">
<figure class="alignleft size-large"><a href="https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/climate-data-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin.png?ssl=1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img data-recalc-dims="1" decoding="async" width="780" height="892" src="https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/climate-data-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin.png?resize=780%2C892&#038;ssl=1" alt="Series of data plots showing annual and mean monthly precipitation, potential evapotranspiration, vapor pressure, and air temperature in the Lithium Crescent and Qaidam Basin from 1960 to 2022." class="wp-image-226253" srcset="https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/climate-data-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin.png?resize=895%2C1024&amp;ssl=1 895w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/climate-data-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin.png?resize=420%2C480&amp;ssl=1 420w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/climate-data-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin.png?resize=768%2C879&amp;ssl=1 768w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/climate-data-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin.png?resize=1343%2C1536&amp;ssl=1 1343w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/climate-data-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin.png?resize=1790%2C2048&amp;ssl=1 1790w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/climate-data-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin.png?resize=1200%2C1373&amp;ssl=1 1200w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/climate-data-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin.png?resize=1568%2C1794&amp;ssl=1 1568w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/climate-data-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin.png?resize=400%2C458&amp;ssl=1 400w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/climate-data-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin.png?w=2000&amp;ssl=1 2000w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/climate-data-lithium-crescent-qaidam-basin-895x1024.png?w=370&amp;ssl=1 370w" sizes="(max-width: 780px) 100vw, 780px" /></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Fig. 2. The plots here show annual and mean monthly precipitation (Pre), potential evapotranspiration (PET), vapor pressure (VAP), and air temperature (T) in the LC and QB from 1960 to 2022. Stars indicate the significance of trends at p &lt; 0.05. Data are from <a href="https://crudata.uea.ac.uk/cru/data/hrg/cru_ts_4.07/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Climatic Research Unit TS version 4.07</a>. Click image for larger version.</figcaption></figure></div>


<p>In recent years, reports have connected brine mining to waste generation, water and soil contamination, landscape change, and flora and fauna degradations, as well as to major problems related to water quantity and quality. Conflicts and tensions between local people and mining companies in the <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/lithium-batteries-environment-impact/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Tibetan Plateau</a> and <a href="https://www.nrdc.org/stories/lithium-mining-leaving-chiles-indigenous-communities-high-and-dry-literally" target="_blank" rel="noopener">the LC</a> related to reduced water resources and contaminated groundwater and streamflow have also been reported [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11273-022-09872-6" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><em>Marconi et al.</em></a>, 2022; <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.13125/americacritica/4926" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Giglio</a></em>, 2021].</p>



<p>Studies are documenting effects on ecosystems as well. For example, reductions in some Andean flamingo populations correlate with a lowered groundwater table [<em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2021.2388" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Gutiérrez et al.</a></em>, 2022], and cyanobacteria populations that feed <a href="https://www.sciencenews.org/article/lithium-mining-flamingo-technology-climate-change" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Andean flamingos</a> are decreasing in lagoons near Salar de Atacama in Chile because of water consumption and pollution caused by lithium extraction [<em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-018-05233-7" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Gutiérrez et al.</a></em>, 2018].</p>



<p>The amount of water used in brine-mining operations can vary depending on weather, mineral concentrations, and the technology used, but for the LC, researchers have estimated that about 100,000–800,000 liters of water are needed per metric ton of lithium extracted [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-022-00387-5" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><em>Vera et al.</em></a>, 2023]. No such estimate exists for the QB, but the thriving mining industry there is also increasing water demand.</p>



<p>In the southern QB, industrial water usage increased from 90 million cubic meters in 2000 to 383 million cubic meters in 2019, respectively accounting for 10.2% and 40.8% of total water consumption in the region in those years [<em>Han et al.</em>, 2023]. In 2016, water diversion facilities and channels were constructed to transport water from nearby subbasins to brine fields and cities to meet increasing demand. In December 2023, three major brine-mining factories in the QB breached their water use quotas by illegally pumping groundwater and extracting water from protected wetlands and lakes to meet their production demands. These actions were publicly criticized by China’s Ministry of Ecology and Environment, which ordered the factories to stop pumping water illegally.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Illuminating the Hydrology Around Brine Mining</h3>



<figure class="wp-block-pullquote alignright"><blockquote><p>We have limited knowledge of brine lakes’ role in regional hydrological cycles or about how the expansion of brine-mining operations to feed demand for lithium may alter this role.</p></blockquote></figure>



<p>Like the ocean and other pools of water below, on, and above Earth’s surface, the world’s brine lakes are players in their regional hydrological cycles. However, we have limited knowledge of brine lakes’ role in these cycles or about how the expansion of brine-mining operations to feed demand for lithium may alter this role.</p>



<p>Several overarching questions confront hydrologists: How and to what extent does brine mining affect the various pools and fluxes (e.g., groundwater recharge, diverted streamflow, evaporation) of the regional hydrological cycle? How does surface runoff from surrounding mountains reach groundwater reservoirs? And how are these reservoirs connected beneath the desert basins where brine lakes occur? What are the ages and chemical compositions of this groundwater? Addressing these questions will inform knowledge of both the quantity and quality of available water resources, which in turn will help decisionmakers allocate water fairly to different sectors and track and protect water quality during brine mining.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img data-recalc-dims="1" decoding="async" width="780" height="430" src="https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/evaporation-pond-brine-Qaidam-Basin.jpg?resize=780%2C430&#038;ssl=1" alt="A long brine evaporation pond sits amid a bare, arid-looking landscape under a clear blue sky." class="wp-image-226254" srcset="https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/evaporation-pond-brine-Qaidam-Basin.jpg?resize=1024%2C565&amp;ssl=1 1024w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/evaporation-pond-brine-Qaidam-Basin.jpg?resize=480%2C265&amp;ssl=1 480w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/evaporation-pond-brine-Qaidam-Basin.jpg?resize=768%2C424&amp;ssl=1 768w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/evaporation-pond-brine-Qaidam-Basin.jpg?resize=1536%2C848&amp;ssl=1 1536w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/evaporation-pond-brine-Qaidam-Basin.jpg?resize=1200%2C662&amp;ssl=1 1200w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/evaporation-pond-brine-Qaidam-Basin.jpg?resize=1568%2C865&amp;ssl=1 1568w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/evaporation-pond-brine-Qaidam-Basin.jpg?resize=400%2C221&amp;ssl=1 400w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/evaporation-pond-brine-Qaidam-Basin.jpg?w=1689&amp;ssl=1 1689w, https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/evaporation-pond-brine-Qaidam-Basin-1024x565.jpg?w=370&amp;ssl=1 370w" sizes="(max-width: 780px) 100vw, 780px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Evaporation ponds amid the dried West Taijinai’er Lake floor in the QB are seen here in September 2023. Credit: Lan Cuo</figcaption></figure>



<p>Further, because the LC and the QB are experiencing similar warming but different precipitation trends—and their respective regional water cycles may thus be affected differently by the changing climate—hydrologists should explore questions related to these differences. How are glaciers and snow in these regions responding to warming paired with more (or less) precipitation? And how do streamflow regimes (comprising the magnitudes, timings, frequencies, and durations of both high and low flows) respond to changes in glaciers, snow, and precipitation? What mechanisms drive extreme events such as drought and flooding in these regions? Answering these questions will shed light on how climate change is affecting scarce water resources in the LC and QB and can inform mitigation efforts to conserve these resources.</p>



<p>Investigating all these questions requires a variety of approaches. In situ measurements of precipitation, evaporation, glaciers, and snow, as well as of groundwater, lakes, rivers, and soils, are needed to determine the availability and quality of water resources in specific locations in the LC and QB. Analyses using stable isotopes and tracers can help determine the sources and ages of water on and below the ground surface. Satellite observations of how landscape variables, such as desertification, lake area, glaciers and snow, soil moisture, and vegetation, are changing will help track effects of climate change and brine mining on water resources and ecosystems. We will also need hydrogeological modeling studies to understand surface hydrology and groundwater storage and movement, and how they are affected by surface runoff in the LC and QB. (In situ measurements are further required to validate satellite and modeling studies.)</p>



<p>Furthermore, collaborations among researchers from both regions should be pursued to enable detailed comparisons and illuminate differences and commonalities in the water issues of each. Such collaborations would also facilitate sharing of research best practices and potential policy solutions with respect to brine mining and water resources.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Involving All Stakeholders for a Better Outcome</h3>



<figure class="wp-block-pullquote alignright"><blockquote><p>Brine mining will be sustainable only when operations, from cradle to grave, use water efficiently; minimize harm to the environment, ecosystems, and communities; and compensate for damage.</p></blockquote></figure>



<p>Water resources in the LC and QB are already stressed by virtue of their locations amid the world’s highest deserts and because of changing climatic conditions. Brine mining to help supply lithium and other raw materials for renewable energy transitions may exacerbate this stress. This mining will be sustainable only when operations, from cradle to grave, use water efficiently; minimize harm to the environment, ecosystems, and communities; and compensate for damage when it does occur.</p>



<p>Combining multiple scientific approaches to study regional hydrology will produce holistic and comprehensive knowledge of water quantity and quality in these areas. But to support the sustainability of brine mining and water resource management in the LC and QB, scientists must share the information and answers gleaned from these approaches with relevant government agencies, mining companies, and local communities through research reports and through conferences and town hall meetings that bring these groups together.</p>



<p>Involving community members will especially help reveal not only the effects on hydrology and ecosystems but also the human toll of mining activities and climate change. And improved communication among these groups will help lawmakers and regulators make and enforce rules to govern responsible mining operations while mitigating negative impacts and meeting community needs.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">References</h3>



<p class="has-small-font-size">Giglio, E. (2021), Extractivism and its socio-environmental impact in South America: Overview of the “lithium triangle,” <em>Am. Crítica</em>, <em>5</em>(1), 47–53, <a href="https://doi.org/10.13125/americacritica/4926" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://doi.org/10.13125/americacritica/4926</a>.</p>



<p class="has-small-font-size">Gutiérrez, J. S., J. G. Navedo, and A. Soriano-Redondo (2018), Chilean Atacama site imperilled by lithium mining, <em>Nature</em>, <em>557</em>, 492, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-018-05233-7" target="_blank" rel="noopener">https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-018-05233-7</a>.</p>



<p class="has-small-font-size">Gutiérrez, J. S., et al. (2022), Climate change and lithium mining influence flamingo abundance in the Lithium Triangle, <em>Proc. R. Soc. B</em>, <em>289</em>, 20212388, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2021.2388" target="_blank" rel="noopener">https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2021.2388</a>.</p>



<p class="has-small-font-size">Han, J., et al. (2023), The potential analysis of rain-flood resources in the Golmud river catchment based on climate change and human interventions, Qaidam basin [in Chinese], <em>J. Salt Lake Res.</em>, <em>31</em>(4), 30–38.</p>



<p class="has-small-font-size">Ma, S., and L. Xu (2011), 2010 Golmud River flooding analysis, <em>Qinghai Sci. Technol.</em>, <em>1</em>, 38–41.</p>



<p class="has-small-font-size">Marconi, P., F. Arengo, and A. Clark (2022), The arid Andean plateau waterscapes and the lithium triangle: Flamingos as flagships for conservation of high-altitude wetlands under pressure from mining development, <em>Wetlands Ecol. Manage.</em>, <em>30</em>, 827–852, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11273-022-09872-6" target="_blank" rel="noopener">https://doi.org/10.1007/s11273-022-09872-6</a>.</p>



<p class="has-small-font-size">Qinghai Bureau of Statistics (2023), Statistics of national economy and social development in 2023 [in Chinese], <a href="https://m.yicai.com/news/102000260.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">m.yicai.com/news/102000260.html</a>.</p>



<p class="has-small-font-size">Steinmetz, R. L. L., and S. Salvi (2021), Brine grades in Andean salars: When basin size matters—A review of the Lithium Triangle, <em>Earth Sci. Rev.</em>, <em>217</em>, 103615, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103615" target="_blank" rel="noopener">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103615</a>.</p>



<p class="has-small-font-size">Vera, M. L., et al. (2023), Environmental impact of direct lithium extraction from brines, <em>Nat. Rev. Earth Environ.</em>, <em>4</em>, 149–165, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-022-00387-5" target="_blank" rel="noopener">https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-022-00387-5</a>.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Author Information</h3>



<p>Lan Cuo (<a href="mailto:lancuo@itpcas.ac.cn" target="_blank" rel="noopener">lancuo@itpcas.ac.cn</a>), State Key Laboratory of Tibetan Plateau Earth System, Resources and Environment, Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing; also at University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing</p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Citation:</strong> Cuo, L. (2024), Concerns over lithium, water, and climate in Earth’s two highest deserts, <em>Eos, 105, </em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2024EO240380" target="_blank" rel="noopener">https://doi.org/10.1029/2024EO240380</a>. Published on 27 August 2024.</h5>



<h5 class="has-light-gray-background-color has-background wp-block-heading">This article does not represent the opinion of AGU, <em>Eos,</em> or any of its affiliates. It is solely the opinion of the author(s).</h5>



<h6 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Text © 2024. The authors. <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CC BY-NC-ND 3.0</a></strong><br><strong>Except where otherwise noted, images are subject to copyright. Any reuse without express permission from the copyright owner is prohibited.</strong></h6>
]]></content:encoded>
					
					<wfw:commentRss>https://eos.org/opinions/concerns-over-lithium-water-and-climate-in-earths-two-highest-deserts/feed</wfw:commentRss>
			<slash:comments>0</slash:comments>
		
		
						<media:description>Evaporation ponds used for lithium mining in part of Bolivia’s Salar de Uyuni—the largest salt flat in the world and part of the “Lithium Crescent” of South America—are seen in this image taken by the Copernicus Sentinel-2B satellite in May 2017. Credit: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2017/07/Uyuni_salt_flat_Bolivia&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot; rel=&quot;noopener&quot;&gt;contains modified Copernicus Sentinel data (2017), processed by ESA&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/igo/legalcode.en&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot; rel=&quot;noopener&quot;&gt;CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO&lt;/a&gt;</media:description>
				<media:thumbnail url="https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?fit=780%2C439&amp;ssl=1" width="780" height="439" />
				<media:content url="https://i0.wp.com/eos.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/bolivia-salar-uyuni-brine-mining.jpg?fit=780%2C439&amp;ssl=1" type="image/jpg" medium="image" width="150px" height="auto" />
				<post-id xmlns="com-wordpress:feed-additions:1">226245</post-id>	</item>
	</channel>
</rss>
